HCI Track-A Understanding People 2 Activity Theory Week44

Lecture Notes: Activity Theory in Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)

Introduction

• Topic: Introduction to Activity Theory as a macro theory in HCI.
• Purpose: Understand human-computer interaction beyond a single user and single device.
• Context: Building upon previous discussions about theory in HCI, especially the distinction between micro and macro HCI theory.

The Role of Theory in HCI

• Era of theories
• Micro HCI: Focuses on the individual user’s interaction with a single computer and software.
  • Example: Fitts’s Law predicting pointing performance.
• Macro HCI: Considers broader contexts, including social and historical factors influencing interaction.
• Types of Theories:
  • Predictive: Forecasts outcomes (e.g., Fitts’s Law).
  • Explanatory: Explains why phenomena occur.
  • Descriptive: Describes phenomena and their relationships.
  • Prescriptive: Provides guidelines for design (e.g., Gestalt principles).

What is Activity Theory?

• Definition: A framework for understanding human activity as a social and developmental process.
• Fundamental Theses:
  1. Consciousness is Constructed: Our consciousness develops through our daily activities.
  2. Inherently Social: Consciousness is shaped by social interactions.
  3. Mediated by Tools: We interact with the world through tools, which influence our perception and actions.

Why Activity Theory(in HCI)

• Lack of understanding of computers’ role for human development and in social contexts
• Beyond one user – one computer – one application
• Technology seems to change our society and organisations, how can we understand that?

Historical Background

Lev Vygotsky and Cultural-Historical Psychology

• Lev Vygotsky: Soviet psychologist who emphasized the social nature of consciousness.
• Key Concepts:
  • Dialectical Relationship: Interaction between culture, society, and artifacts shapes consciousness.
  • Zone of Proximal Development: The difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance.
  • Internalization and Externalization:
    • Externalization: Using physical actions to understand concepts (e.g., counting on fingers).
    • Internalization: Transforming external actions into mental processes.

Development of Activity Theory

• Alexei Leontiev: Expanded Vygotsky’s work to formalize Activity Theory.
• Susanne Bødker: Brought Activity Theory into HCI research, emphasizing its applicability to understanding tool use in context.

Application of Activity Theory in HCI

Motivating Example: CCLSurgical System

• Description: A system used in surgical wards to provide an overview of surgeries, patients, and staff.
• Design Considerations:
  • Understanding Organizational Context:
    • Information Needs: Identifying critical information for surgical procedures.
    • Workflow Integration: Ensuring the system fits into existing processes.
  • User Interface Usage Conditions:
    • Time Constraints: Interactions should not exceed 30 seconds to avoid distracting clinicians.
    • Environment: Must be usable in a fast-paced, high-stakes setting.
  • User Skills and Competencies:
    • Terminology: Using language familiar to medical professionals.
    • Training: Considering the varying technical skills of users.
  • Practice Changes with New Technology:
    • Adoption Impact: Recognizing that introducing the system will alter existing practices.
    • Iterative Prototyping: Testing and refining the system based on user feedback.

Key Questions for System Design

1. Why is the interface needed?
2. What tasks should it support?
3. Who will use it, and what are their competencies?
4. How will it change existing practices?

Structure of Activity Theory

Hierarchical Levels of Activity

1. Activity (Why?)
   • Definition: the smallest meaningful unit of analysis for understanding why humans do what they do
     • Is motivied by needs
     • Is direct towards objects
     • Is in constant development
     • Is mediated by tools (both physical and mental)
   • Example: Teaching to earn a living or to educate students.
2. Action (What?)
   • Definition: Conscious processes directed toward goals.
   • Example: Explaining a concept during a lecture.
3. Operation (How?)
   • Definition: Automatic routines or skills, often unconscious.
   • Example: Speaking, gesturing, or using a slideshow without conscious thought.

活动（Activity）：学习一门外语的整体行为，动机可能是为了职业发展。
行动（Action）：为了学外语，具体表现为有意识地参加课程、记单词、练习听力等目标驱动的行为。
操作（Operation）：在练习听力时，不自觉地调节耳机音量、选择播放速度等微操作。

Dynamics Between Levels

• Automatization: Actions becoming operations through practice.
• Conceptualization: Operations becoming actions when problems occur (e.g., if a microphone stops working, speaking becomes a conscious action).

  Object-oriented

• Human activity is always directed towards an object
• Objects can be
  • Things
  • People
  • Mental Objects / constructs
  • Social or cultural phenomena

Mediation and Tools

• Tools as Mediators:
  • Broad Definition: Includes physical artifacts, language, symbols, and rules.
  • Role: Tools shape how we interact with the world and are shaped by our activities.
• Examples of Tools:
  • Physical: Pens, computers, smartphones.
  • Conceptual: Language, mathematics, social norms.
• Tools and Consciousness:
  • Shaping Understanding: Use of tools influences our perceptions and thought processes.
  • Development Over Time: Tools evolve, affecting how activities are performed.

Examples of Tool Influence

• First Car:
  • Freedom and Mobility: Changed perception of distance and independence.
  • Impact on Lifestyle: Altered social interactions and daily routines.
• GitHub Copilot:
  • Programming Assistance: Changed approach to writing code.
  • Dependency on AI: Altered the perception of what tasks require human effort.
• Social Media:
  • Communication: Changed how people interact and share information.
  • Privacy Considerations: Influenced behavior due to potential for broad visibility.

Object-Orientedness

• Activities Directed Towards Objects:
  • Concrete Objects: Physical items or artifacts being created or modified.
  • Abstract Objects: Goals like education, relationships, or social status.
• Examples:
  • Using Mobile Pay:
    • Object: Paying rent to avoid eviction, splitting a bill to maintain social harmony.
  • Attending a Lecture:
    • Object: Gaining knowledge, earning a degree.

Internalisation and Externalization

• External activities (realised outside the body) can be internalised
• Internal activities can be externalised to involve others in them
• These transformations are the foundation of human cognition

Development and Contradictions

• Constant Development: Activities, tools, and consciousness are always evolving.(Activities are in constant development)
• Inherent conflicts or contradictions create breakdowns that leads to development in an activity (and/or in an artefact!)
  • “Inherent conflicts or contradictions create breakdowns”
    • The term ‘inherent conflict or contradiction’ refers to opposing elements or inconsistencies within the activity.
    • In this case, ‘breakdown’ does not refer to the termination of the activity, but rather to the emergence of a problem or difficulty that prevents the activity from proceeding as smoothly as expected.
    • In business management, employees are often unable to complete tasks as planned due to limitations in tools (such as inefficient software).
  • “that leads to development”
    • Contradictions and ruptures are not just problems, they are the driving force behind the development of activity. This is one of the central ideas of activity theory.
    • When problems arise, people try to solve them, which triggers changes in activities or tools. New ways of operating, new goal designs, or new tools may arise as a result.

Example: Mobile Pay

• Primary Contradiction: Deciding between using cash or a digital payment.
• Secondary Contradiction: Expecting Mobile Pay to work internationally but it doesn’t.
• Tertiary Contradiction: Preferring online booking but faced with phone reservations in another country.
• Quaternary Contradiction: User demand for features leading to changes in Mobile Pay (e.g., introduction of “boxes” for group payments).

Engeström’s Activity System Model

• Components:
  • Subject: The individual or group performing the activity.
  • Object: The goal or motivation behind the activity.
  • Tools/Artifacts: Means used to perform the activity.
  • Community: Social context or group involved.
  • Rules: Norms, laws, and conventions governing the activity.
  • Division of Labor: Distribution of tasks among participants.

• Interactions: Each component mediates the relationships between others, leading to a complex system of activity.

• Contradictions Leading to Development(The numbers represent different types of contradictions that exist in the activity system.):
  • Primary Contradictions: Conflicts within components of the activity system (e.g., value of a tool vs. its cost).
  • Secondary Contradictions: Between components (e.g., tool capabilities vs. user expectations).
  • Tertiary Contradictions: Between current activity and more advanced forms (e.g., outdated practices conflicting with new methods).
  • Quaternary Contradictions: Between neighboring activity systems (e.g., user practices vs. regulatory changes).

Simplified Model for Analysis

• Purpose: To apply Activity Theory in practical analysis of human-artifact interaction.
• Components:
  • Human Side:
    • Motivation: Underlying needs or desires.
    • Goals: Conscious objectives.
    • Operational Orientation: Learned methods and adaptations.
  • Artifact Side:
    • Assumptions at Each Level: How the artifact is designed to meet human components.
• Conflict Identification: Analyzing mismatches between human expectations and artifact design.
• Acitivity Theory:
  • Why Activity
  • What Action
  • How Operation

Example: Corkscrews

Two Types of Corkscrews

1. Winged Corkscrew:
   • Why Choose It?
     • Ease of use.
     • Familiarity with the mechanism.
   • How It Works:
     • Uses levers (wings) to extract the cork.
     • Requires understanding of leverage.
2. Sommelier’s Corkscrew:
   • Why Choose It?
     • Professional appearance.
     • Portability.
   • How It Works:
     • Manual extraction using a screw and lever.
     • Requires more skill and practice.

Analysis

• Motivation:
  • Open a bottle efficiently without breaking the cork.
  • May include social factors (e.g., appearing sophisticated).
• Goals:
  • Successfully remove the cork.
• Operational Orientation:
  • Winged Corkscrew: Simple mechanics, suitable for novices.
  • Sommelier’s Corkscrew: Requires learned technique.
• Conflicts:
  • A novice may struggle with the sommelier’s corkscrew due to lack of skill.
  • The winged corkscrew may not meet aesthetic expectations in a formal setting.

Conclusion

• Importance of Activity Theory in HCI:
  • Provides a framework to understand complex interactions beyond individual use.
  • Emphasizes the role of social context, tools, and development in activities.
  • Aids in designing systems that consider user motivations, goals, and practices.
• Key Takeaways:
  • Human activities are object-oriented and mediated by tools.
  • Consciousness and practices evolve through interactions with tools and society.
  • Contradictions within activity systems drive development and change.
• Application:
  • Use Activity Theory to analyze user interactions with technology.
  • Consider the broader context when designing and implementing systems.
  • Be aware that introducing new technologies will alter existing practices