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HCI History

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By Wei Xiong
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HCI History

Lecture Notes: A History of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)

Based on the lecture by [Professor’s Name], covering the evolution of HCI from mechanical computers to modern technologies.

Introduction

The lecture provides an overview of the nearly 100-year history of human-computer interaction (HCI), exploring how past innovations have shaped modern computing. The goals are to:

  • Inform about the historical development of computing technologies.
  • Understand how technological ideas emerged and influenced today’s computing landscape.
  • Recognize that many contemporary technologies originated in research labs over 50 years ago.

Early Computing

Mechanical Computers

Differential Analyzer at MIT (1930)

  • Description: A mechanical computer occupying an entire room, used to solve differential equations faster than manual calculations.
  • Programming: Required manual setup and programming through physical configurations.
  • Relation to HCI:
    • Enabled real-time interaction with computational processes.
    • Operators could observe and adjust computations in real-time.
    • Introduced physical controls supporting direct manipulation.
    • Established a feedback loop between operator and machine.

Impact of World War II

  • Technological Acceleration: WWII significantly accelerated advancements in technology and computing.
  • Key Areas:
    • Codebreaking: Efforts like deciphering the German Enigma machine.
    • Artillery Tables: Computing trajectories for military applications.
    • Scientific Computing: The Manhattan Project required complex calculations for nuclear research.

Transition to Electronic Computers

  • ENIAC and Colossus:
    • Marked the shift from mechanical to electronic computing using vacuum tubes.
    • ENIAC: First Turing-complete digital computer, programmed manually by plugging cables.
    • Programming Interface:
      • Required extensive manual configuration.
      • Programming involved plugging in cables and rewiring, a form of early HCI.
      • Needed six human operators per machine.

Intelligence Augmentation vs. Artificial Intelligence

Two Camps in Computing Philosophy

  1. Intelligence Augmentation (IA)
    • Concept: Computers as tools to augment human capabilities.
    • Analogy: Just like tools (shovels, calculators) enhance physical abilities, computers enhance cognitive abilities.
    • Goal: Empower users to be stronger, faster, and more efficient in tasks like calculation and memory.
  2. Artificial Intelligence (AI)
    • Concept: Computers should emulate or replicate human intelligence.
    • Goal: Create machines that can perform tasks requiring human-like understanding and eventually operate autonomously.

Pioneers

  • J.C.R. Licklider
    • Work: “Man-Computer Symbiosis”
    • Contribution: Advocated for IA, emphasizing collaborative interaction between humans and computers.
    • Legacy: Laid groundwork for modern HCI, focusing on enhancing human intellect.
  • John McCarthy
    • Contribution: Coined the term “Artificial Intelligence” at the 1956 Dartmouth Conference.
    • Goal: Develop computers that can simulate human reasoning and potentially replace human intelligence in tasks.

Ongoing Division and Merging

  • The IA and AI camps have historically developed in parallel, with occasional convergence.
  • IA Focus: Keeping humans in the loop, designing interfaces that support human users.
  • AI Focus: Creating systems that can operate independently of human intervention.
  • Recent advancements are bridging the gap, integrating AI into HCI to create more intelligent interfaces.

Timeline of Computing and HCI

From Batch to Interactive Computing

Invention of the Transistor (1947)

  • Significance: Transition from bulky vacuum tubes to compact, reliable transistors.
  • Impact:
    • Miniaturization of computers.
    • Increased computational power.
    • Enabled development of personal computing devices.

TX-2 at MIT Lincoln Labs (1958)

  • First Computer Designed for Interactive Use:
    • Allowed users to interact in real-time.
    • Supported multiple users through time-sharing.
  • Innovations:
    • Large memory capacity for its time (64K words).
    • Complex graphics capabilities.
    • Input devices like the light pen.

PDP-1 by Digital Equipment Corporation (1959)

  • Affordable Interactive Computing:
    • Priced at $120,000, cheaper than other computers of the era.
    • Size of two refrigerators, making it more accessible.
  • Impact on Culture:
    • Fostered the hacker culture.
    • Allowed for experimentation and hands-on learning.
  • Programming Interface:
    • Initially used punched paper cards.
    • Programming was physical, with each card representing a line of code.

Spacewar! (1962)

  • First Digital Game:
    • Developed on the PDP-1.
    • Real-time graphical gameplay with two-player support.
  • Significance:
    • Demonstrated computers could be used for entertainment.
    • Showcased the potential of interactive graphics.

Sketchpad by Ivan Sutherland (1962)

  • First Graphical User Interface (GUI):
    • Used a light pen to draw directly on the display.
    • Introduced concepts like direct manipulation, graphical constraints, and object-oriented programming.
  • Impact on HCI:
    • Pioneered interactive computer graphics.
    • Influenced future CAD systems and GUIs.

“The Mother of All Demos” by Doug Engelbart (1968)

  • Groundbreaking Demonstration:
    • Introduced the computer mouse.
    • Showcased hypertext, video conferencing, collaborative editing, and windows.
  • Key Innovations:
    • By-Manual Interaction: Using both keyboard and mouse simultaneously.
    • Real-Time Collaboration: Multiple users editing documents together.
    • Hypertext Navigation: Linking between documents.
  • Legacy:
    • Set the foundation for modern interactive computing and collaborative tools.

Sword of Damocles by Ivan Sutherland (1968)

  • First Virtual Reality (VR) Prototype:
    • Head-mounted display providing a rudimentary VR experience.
  • Features:
    • Real-time head tracking.
    • Wireframe graphics overlaying the real world.
  • Significance:
    • Marked the beginning of VR and augmented reality (AR) research.

From Specialized to Personal Computing

Alan Kay’s Dynabook Vision

  • Concept: A personal, portable computer accessible to everyone, including children.
  • Features:
    • Tablet-like form factor with a graphical interface.
    • Emphasized computing as a medium for creativity and learning.
  • Impact:
    • Influenced the development of laptops and tablets.
    • Advocated for user-friendly interfaces.

Xerox Alto (1973)

  • First Modern GUI Computer:
    • Developed at Xerox PARC.
  • Innovations:
    • Bitmap Display: For rendering graphics and text.
    • Overlapping Windows: Allowing multitasking.
    • Mouse-Driven Interface: Simplifying user interaction.
    • Ethernet Networking: Connecting computers in a network.
  • Programming:
    • Used Smalltalk, an object-oriented programming language supporting live coding.

Xerox PARC Innovations

  • Key Contributions:
    • Personal Computer: Shift from shared machines to individual ownership.
    • Graphical User Interface: Making computers more accessible.
    • Laser Printing: High-quality document production.
    • Networking Protocols: Foundations for modern networks.

1977 Trinity of Home Computers

  1. Commodore PET
    • All-in-One Design: Integrated monitor, keyboard, and storage.
  2. Apple II
    • Color Graphics: Enhanced visual capabilities.
    • Expandable Architecture: Allowed hardware upgrades.
  3. TRS-80 Model I
    • Mass Distribution: Sold through RadioShack stores, increasing accessibility.
  • Significance:
    • First mass-market personal computers under $1,000.
    • Transitioned computing from hobbyist kits to consumer products.
    • Sold over 100,000 units each, establishing a consumer market.

VisiCalc (1979)

  • First Electronic Spreadsheet Program:
    • Ran on the Apple II.
  • Features:
    • Visible calculations with automatic updates.
    • Ability to copy formulas across cells.
    • Cell grid interface with direct manipulation.
  • Impact:
    • Became a “killer app” driving computer sales.
    • Demonstrated practical business applications for personal computers.

Xerox Star (1981)

  • Introduction of the WIMP Paradigm:
    • Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer.
  • Features:
    • Complete desktop metaphor.
    • Consistent interface design across applications.
    • Mouse-driven interactions.
  • Challenges:
    • High cost ($16,000+), leading to commercial failure.
  • Legacy:
    • Influenced future GUI development in personal computing.

From Desktop to Ubiquitous Computing

Mark Weiser’s Vision of Ubiquitous Computing

  • Concept: Integrating computers seamlessly into everyday life.
  • Three Scales of Devices:
    1. Tabs: Wearable devices.
    2. Pads: Tablet-sized portable computers.
    3. Boards: Wall-sized interactive displays.
  • Principles:
    • Computers should blend into the environment.
    • Technology should enhance life without being intrusive.
  • Impact:
    • Paved the way for the Internet of Things (IoT).
    • Influenced the development of pervasive and ambient computing.

1990s to Present

World Wide Web (1990)

  • Created by: Sir Tim Berners-Lee at CERN.
  • Components:
    • HTML: Standard markup language for documents.
    • URLs: Uniform Resource Locators for addressing.
    • HTTP: Protocol for transferring web pages.
    • Web Browser: Interface for accessing the web.
  • Significance:
    • Globalized information sharing.
    • Democratized access to information.

3D Graphics Revolution

  • 3Dfx Voodoo Graphics Card:
    • Enabled hardware-accelerated 3D rendering on personal computers.
  • Impact on Gaming:
    • Improved visual fidelity and performance.
    • Set the standard for future graphics development.

Web 2.0 and Social Media

  • Transition to Participatory Media:
    • Users became content creators, not just consumers.
  • Platforms:
    • Wikipedia: Collaborative knowledge base.
    • Social Networks: Facebook, Twitter, enabling global connectivity.
    • YouTube: User-generated video content.
  • Impact:
    • Changed the dynamics of information dissemination.
    • Emphasized user engagement and interaction.

Mobile Computing

iPhone (2007)

  • Revolutionized Smartphones:
    • Combined a phone, iPod, and internet communicator.
  • Features:
    • Multi-Touch Interface: Direct manipulation using fingers.
    • Full Web Browsing: Access to the entire internet.
    • Sensor Integration: Accelerometer and GPS capabilities.
  • Impact:
    • Shifted computing towards mobile platforms.
    • Sparked the development of app ecosystems.

iPad (2010)

  • Bridged Gap Between Smartphones and Laptops:
    • Larger screen for enhanced media consumption.
  • Features:
    • Instant-On Computing: Immediate usability.
    • Long Battery Life: All-day usage.
    • Touch Interface: No keyboard or stylus required.
  • Legacy:
    • Popularized tablets as a mainstream device.
    • Influenced content creation and consumption habits.

Voice Assistants

  • Siri (2011), Alexa (2014), Google Assistant:
    • Brought voice interaction to consumer devices.
  • Features:
    • Natural language understanding.
    • Integration with smart home devices.
  • Challenges:
    • Discoverability of features.
    • Providing meaningful feedback.
  • Impact on HCI:
    • Opened new interaction modalities.
    • Highlighted the need for conversational interface design.

Virtual and Augmented Reality Resurgence

Oculus Rift (2012)

  • Consumer-Level VR Headset:
    • Kickstarter project that reignited interest in VR.
  • Features:
    • High-resolution displays.
    • Low-latency head tracking.
  • Impact:
    • Expanded VR applications beyond gaming.
    • Led to increased investment in VR technologies.

Augmented Reality Developments

  • Google Glass (2013):
    • Early AR eyewear for overlaying information onto the real world.
  • Microsoft HoloLens (2016):
    • Mixed reality headset combining AR and VR elements.
  • PokĂ©mon Go (2016):
    • Popularized AR gaming on smartphones.
  • Apple Vision Pro (Announced 2023):
    • Signals a push towards mainstream AR adoption.
  • Challenges:
    • Technical limitations like motion sickness.
    • Social acceptance and ergonomic design.

Human-Centered AI

  • Integration of AI in HCI:
    • Focus on keeping humans in control of AI technologies.
  • Applications:
    • Intelligent interfaces that adapt to user needs.
    • Collaborative systems where AI augments human decision-making.
  • Importance:
    • Addresses ethical considerations.
    • Enhances usability and user experience.

Conclusion

Future Directions

  • Spatial Computing:
    • Merging physical and digital worlds.
    • Use of AR glasses for everyday tasks.
  • Continued Evolution of HCI:
    • Emphasis on seamless interaction across devices.
    • Development of more natural and intuitive interfaces.

Jonathan Grudin’s Paper

  • “The Computer Reaches Out: The Historical Continuity of Interface Design”:
    • Discusses the evolution of the user in computing.
    • Identifies five stages of interface development:
      1. Batch Processing
      2. Interactive Computing
      3. Personal Computing
      4. Graphical User Interfaces
      5. Computer-Supported Cooperative Work
  • Assignment:
    • Reflect on current trends to propose a sixth or seventh stage in HCI evolution.
    • Consider factors like AI integration, ubiquitous computing, and new interaction paradigms.
Data Visualization
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