HCI Overview Week 47 - History of Interactive Computing

TRACK - A

1. What Motivated the Development of Interactive Computing?

The development of interactive computing was primarily motivated by the need to enhance human capabilities in processing and managing complex information. Early motivations included:

• Efficiency in Computation: Mechanical computers like the Differential Analyzer were developed to solve differential equations faster than manual calculations, particularly during critical periods such as World War II.
• Wartime Efforts: The urgency of World War II spurred significant advancements in computing technology for tasks like codebreaking (e.g., Colossus) and calculating artillery firing tables.
• Information Overload: Vannevar Bush’s vision in “As We May Think” highlighted the growing problem of information overload, motivating the creation of systems like the Memex to help humans manage and navigate vast amounts of information effectively.
• Human Augmentation: Pioneers like J.C.R. Licklider advocated for intelligence augmentation, viewing computers as tools to amplify human intellect and productivity rather than merely automating tasks.

2. How Did Interaction with Early Computers Happen and How Has It Evolved?

Early Interactions:

• Mechanical Controls: Interaction with early mechanical computers involved manual tasks such as plugging in cables, operating toggle switches, and using physical levers and switches to input commands.
• Punch Cards: Programming was done using punch cards, where each card represented a line of code. This process was error-prone and required meticulous organization of cards.
• Real-Time Feedback: Despite their size and complexity, early computers like the Differential Analyzer allowed for real-time interaction, enabling operators to observe and adjust computations on the fly.
• Multiple Operators: Room-sized computers often required several human operators to manage and operate them, emphasizing a highly manual and collaborative interaction model.

Evolution of Interaction:

• Electronic Interfaces: The transition from mechanical to electronic computers introduced more reliable and faster interactions using electronic tubes and later transistors.
• Interactive Terminals and Timesharing (1950s-1960s): Systems like the MIT Lincoln Labs’ computer enabled multiple users to interact with a single computer simultaneously through interactive terminals, paving the way for timesharing.
• Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs): Innovations such as Ivan Sutherland’s Sketchpad (1961) and the Xerox Alto introduced graphical interfaces, allowing users to interact with computers using light pens and later mice.
• Personal Computers and WIMP Paradigm (1970s-1980s): The advent of personal computers like the Apple II and Xerox Star popularized the WIMP (Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer) paradigm, making GUIs accessible to average users.
• Touch and Gesture Interfaces (2000s-Present): The rise of smartphones and tablets introduced touch-based interactions, while advancements in VR and AR have incorporated gesture and spatial interactions.
• Voice and AI Assistants: Modern interfaces increasingly incorporate voice commands and AI-driven interactions, enhancing natural user interactions with technology.

3. When Were Some of the Ideas We Now Take for Granted First Presented?

Several foundational ideas in interactive computing were introduced decades before they became commonplace:

• Pointing Devices (Mouse): Doug Engelbart’s “Mother of All Demos” in 1968 showcased the first use of the computer mouse, revolutionizing how users interact with GUIs.
• Hypertext: Vannevar Bush’s 1945 essay “As We May Think” introduced the concept of the Memex, a system resembling hypertext, allowing users to create and follow associative trails of information.
• Collaborative Editing: The Xerox PARC team developed the first collaborative document editor in the late 1980s, enabling real-time collaboration and laying the groundwork for modern tools like Google Docs.
• Video Communication: Engelbart’s 1968 demo also featured early forms of video communication, demonstrating the potential for interactive, multimedia interactions between users.

4. Where Was the Personal Computer Invented and What Was the Vision Driving Its Development?

Invention and Early Models:

• Origins: The personal computer (PC) revolution began in the late 1970s with the introduction of mass-market computers like the Commodore Pet, Apple II, and TRS-80 Model I. These machines transitioned computing from hobbyist kits to consumer-friendly products.
• Xerox PARC’s Influence: Alan Kay’s vision at Xerox PARC, exemplified by the Dyna Book, aimed to make computing accessible and creative for individuals, including children. This vision emphasized personal empowerment and democratization of computing technology.

Driving Vision:

• Democratization of Computing: The primary vision was to make computers accessible to everyday people, not just professionals or military personnel. This involved creating user-friendly interfaces and affordable hardware.
• Enhancing Creativity and Learning: Personal computers were envisioned as tools to foster creativity, education, and personal productivity, enabling users to interact with technology in intuitive and meaningful ways.
• Integration into Daily Life: The goal was to embed computing into personal and professional environments seamlessly, moving beyond specialized or industrial applications to widespread personal use.

5. What Is the WIMP Paradigm and When Was It Introduced?

WIMP Paradigm Defined:

• WIMP: An acronym for Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer. It represents a graphical user interface (GUI) design paradigm that utilizes these four elements to facilitate user interaction with computers.
• Components:
  • Windows: Allow multiple applications or documents to be open and visible simultaneously.
  • Icons: Graphical representations of programs, files, or commands that users can interact with.
  • Menus: Provide a list of options or commands that users can select to perform actions.
  • Pointer: A movable indicator, typically controlled by a mouse, used to select and manipulate objects on the screen.

Introduction and Adoption:

• Xerox Star (Early 1980s): The WIMP paradigm was first introduced with the Xerox Star, the first commercial computer to implement a GUI based on WIMP principles.
• Apple Macintosh (1984): Popularized the WIMP paradigm by making GUIs accessible to the general public, significantly influencing subsequent operating systems like Microsoft Windows.

Impact:

• The WIMP paradigm standardized how users interact with computers, making interfaces more intuitive and accessible. It remains a foundational concept in modern desktop and laptop computing despite the emergence of alternative interaction methods like touch and gesture-based interfaces.

6. When Was the Web Invented and For What?

Invention:

• Timeline: The World Wide Web was invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989 while working at CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) in Switzerland.
• Public Release: The first website was launched in 1991, and the Web gained significant traction with the release of browsers like Netscape Navigator in the mid-1990s.

Purpose and Motivation:

• Scientific Information Sharing: The primary motivation was to facilitate the sharing and dissemination of scientific information among researchers. The existing Arpanet infrastructure provided the necessary networking capabilities.
• Hypertext System: Inspired by Vannevar Bush’s Memex, Berners-Lee developed hypertext to allow users to create and follow links between documents, making information navigation more associative and intuitive.
• Global Hypermedia System: The Web was designed as a global system to access and interlink documents and resources, transcending geographical and organizational boundaries.

Key Innovations:

• HTML (HyperText Markup Language): Structured documents with links to other documents.
• URLs (Uniform Resource Locators): Standardized addresses to locate resources on the Web.
• HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol): Protocol for transferring web documents.
• Web Browsers: Software to access, render, and interact with web content.

7. What Kind of Phases Can Interaction with Computers Be Characterized By?

According to Jonathan Grudin’s work in “The Computer Reaches Out,” the evolution of human-computer interaction can be characterized by distinct phases, each reflecting changes in technology, user roles, and interaction paradigms:

1. Mainframe Era (1950s):
   • Users: Primarily engineers and specialists.
   • Interaction: Batch processing using punch cards; limited direct interaction.
   • Technology: Large, room-sized mainframe computers requiring specialized knowledge to operate.
2. Programmer Era (1960s):
   • Users: Programmers who wrote code using punch cards.
   • Interaction: Transition to timesharing systems with interactive terminals.
   • Technology: Introduction of interactive computing, allowing real-time feedback and multiple users.
3. End-User Computing (1970s-1980s):
   • Users: Non-programmer end-users in business and personal contexts.
   • Interaction: Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs) with the WIMP paradigm; use of mice and direct manipulation.
   • Technology: Personal computers like the Apple II and Macintosh; software applications for personal and business use.
4. Collaborative Computing (1990s-Present):
   • Users: Groups and teams collaborating in real-time.
   • Interaction: Collaborative tools like Google Docs, real-time editing, video conferencing.
   • Technology: Networked computers, cloud computing, advanced collaborative software facilitating shared workspaces.
5. Ubiquitous and Mobile Computing (Late 1990s-Present):
   • Users: Individuals interacting with computing devices seamlessly integrated into their environments.
   • Interaction: Mobile interfaces, touch and gesture controls, voice assistants, augmented and virtual reality.
   • Technology: Smartphones, tablets, wearable devices, IoT (Internet of Things) devices enabling constant connectivity and context-aware interactions.